Cultural Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Cultural Policy - Essay Example 64). It is remarkable that cultural policies should achieve set objective of society empowerment through avenues as employment provision. Social policies should equally promote the integration of diversity in cultures in the society. Cultural policies should promote equality among members of the society. All the objectives of most cultural policies are entangled in diverse focus points. Policymakers, therefore, should identify the challenge of formulating cultural policies that bring together. Promoting equality, for instance, would require focus on national heritage and culture. Achieving empowerment among the community members would call for focus on the creative industry. Attaining the objective of promoting cultural diversity in the society would require focus on arts. Since attaining all these is imperative, cultural policies should provide a framework of integration and promoting them. Policymakers should not single out the focus sectors, whether arts, national heritage, cultur e or creative industry. Instead, they should formulate cultural policies that ensure the attainment of benefits from all focus points. The case of UK cultural policy is an illustrative framework to integrate all focus areas (Lewis & Miller 2008, p. 7). The culture, media and sport department in the UK aims at improving the citizens’ quality of life through formulation of an inclusive cultural policy that addresses all the concerns and areas of focus. It targets to elevate the economy by promoting employment to citizens through its support to the creative industry. The department has an aim of making the UK an exciting destination for visitors and businessperson through the protection of culture and preserving national heritage (Great Britain, 2006, p. 184). This involves its support to preserving the national heritage as one of the vital areas. It encourages investments in cultures through funding pioneering projects through the support of forty-four agencies including public entities. Cultural policy is an approach to policymaking for promoting culture and art in the society (Craik, 2007, p. 42). Adopting an academic approach to cultural policy is an effective strategy to ensure their effectiveness in promoting culture and heritage. Legal frameworks that govern a society or country’s culture and art are vital components of cultural policy. Setting up institutions mandated to promote culture and art in a society or country is a vital aspect of cultural policy. Fostering cultural diversity in a country or society is an important role of the government and its policy formulation departments and agencies. Every country has its unique and diverse cultures that promote creativity. There are diverse approaches to cultural policy as adopted by different countries. It also provides for proper quality assurance in the management of culture and heritage. Policies should focus on guiding concepts of evaluation of the required standards. Evaluation is impera tive in ensuring scrutiny for spending and quality in the deliverance of services to the public. Policies should promote the administration of culture. Reformist adjustments to cultural policy promote proper financing of culture to achieve social inclusion. Policies should aim at providing funding to failing organizations to enhance their potential. Policies should provide enhanced used of digital technology to in promoting cult

Prepare a written business plan of (The Apple INC) on the Orbis Essay

Prepare a written business plan of (The Apple INC) on the Orbis database - Essay Example Apple has already launched its iphone in India using a marketing strategy wherein it launched its phones in eight Indian cities at midnight of August 22, 2008. As pointed out in an article printed from Wharton, Apple’s strategy in India was different from its launch strategy in the United States, where the company followed a different strategy. As articulated by Professor Peter Fader of Wharton: â€Å"Here in the U.S., Apple basically wanted to bust the market open all at once. So, they had all these people lined up all around the block, and when they flipped the switch -- boom! -- the market existed. In India, its almost like they are doing a test market.† (www.knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu). The launch was a small scale one and was carried out without much fanfare. This report will address various other marketing aspects of Apple’s strategy in India and recommend measures that could be taken in this regard. The development of the iphone is a relatively recent development in the electronics industry, which relies upon 3G networks in order to operate efficiently. The 3G generation of mobile networks is expected to complete the worldwide process of global communication (Lindemann et al, 2003). Mobile communication systems, if effectively provisioned and utilized, could provide a means to include a range of new services with different quality of service requirements, so that radio resources can offer a high capacity level of service over a planned coverage area. In a 3G scenario, RRM functions will play a pivotal role because they influence system efficiency and the operator infrastructure cost. In providing an optimum level of quality of service, two major aspects would be important, i.e., the network planning in terms of features such as the number of cell sites and their design and location, as well as the radio resource allocation or the manner in which the resources are

Psychology and Social Situations Essay Example for Free

Psychology and Social Situations Essay Providing incentive for individuals to establish a carpool system or take the bus instead will motivate them to resort to these resolutions although it has been unsuccessful. The government and other organizations that campaign against overdependence on private vehicles which contribute to heavy traffic should not expect that simply asking the people to share rides and take buses in order to lessen the number of vehicles on the road will work. People should be given incentives in adhering to the requests of concerned organizations, such as free fare or transportation allowances for the people. Organizations and establishments concentrated on a specific location should grant employees with free rides on shuttles that will take them to and from work everyday. This allows individuals to understand that sharing rides and taking the buses will save them the fare and lessen inconveniences caused by heavy traffic. 2. From this particular situation, we may deduce the disparity of knowledge and competencies displayed by children. Individual differences also cause differences on the rate of performance within the classroom, such that there are those that excel and those who fail depending on the cognitive faculties. Assignments are provided by teachers not only to reinforce learning and introduce the succeeding lesson, but also to give children the chance to catch up and experience success through home-based activities that allow them to learn at their own pace. Children who are identified to be the lowest-achieving in class think about their chance of pulling up their grades by spending more time on their assignments and excelling through them. This is the same reason why excellent performers do not spend more time on their homework, because they already have experienced success within the classroom setting. 3. Providing rewards is a good way of motivating children and reinforcing learning. There are various forms of rewards that teachers will be able to use including tangible rewards. Although concrete objects are considered as rewards, they should be given in moderation. Teachers should look for other forms of rewards such as praises and commendations, exemptions from school work or activities, and other types of non-tangible rewards. The danger of utilizing concrete objects as rewards is that children will not be able to learn the value of maintaining desirable learning behavior in class. Every action that they take will depend on the presence of a tangible reward at all times. In this case, desirable learning behaviors are not reinforced and sustained throughout the learning process, and children will only choose to perform well and exhibit good behavior when they see that there will be tangible rewards made available for them after doing so. To address this situation, academic institutions should consider setting standards and guidelines on how teachers should provide rewards, stressing the need to lessen the use of concrete objects but rather utilizing non-tangible rewards that create emphasis on inherent changes and display on desirable learning behavior and excellent learning performances. B. Psychological Disorders 1. The classification of abnormal behavior stems from the need to appropriately determine the medical and professional methods and strategies that will be implemented in order to address problems associated with the variety of abnormal behavior. The classification system of abnormal behavior, particularly the DSM-IV established by the American Psychiatric Association or APA, is utilized in order to provide a clear illustration or image of the kind or type of behavior exhibited by an individual. The DSM-IV utilizes five axes that are utilized to categorize behavior, solidifying them into a profile that provides information on the dimensions of particular behaviors. Utilizing classification systems, such as DSM-IV, although convenient also has flaws or disadvantages, intensifying the difficulty of assessing and classifying behavior. For instance, since the DSM-IV utilizes five axes in categorizing behavior, it becomes a limited means of understanding the dynamics of behavior. Classifying behavior into five categories does not really border on reliability and validity since behavior will not always meet all the criteria of each category. 2. When one is diagnosed with psychological or mental disorders, this means that there is something nonstandard and uncharacteristic about an individual’s way of thinking and behavior. Having a disorder mean that an individual’s life, particularly his functioning, is influenced by its effects building problems and difficulties along the way. The diagnosis will point to possible causes, whether the disorder is caused by biological factors, environmental factors, and such, which affects one’s ability to work efficiently, socialize with other people or become integrated into society under normal circumstances, etc. After being diagnosed with a psychological or mental disorder, it will also mean that an individual will need to seek professional help in order to determine the root of the problem and disorder and identify possible solutions in order to resolve them. 3. Perhaps it is better to be wrongly diagnosed as having a mental disorder even if one actually does not than the other way around because in the process, the individual will still be able to disprove the diagnosis while medical professionals will have enough time to discover the wrongfulness of their diagnosis. One will not lose anything by being misdiagnosed as psychologically or mentally incapacitated, perhaps just time and effort in proving the misdiagnosis of medical professionals. On the other hand, if one is wrongly diagnosed as not having a mental disorder, he will miss the chance of being provided with professional help and assistance as to how he will be able to conquer the problems brought about by his psychological or mental disorder. After being diagnosed without mental disorders even if in fact, one is psychologically or mentally changed, it will not be treated properly fuelling the possibility of one’s illness or disorder getting worse, while at the same time, intensifying the effects that it might bring towards one life. Missing out on the chance of being treated will neglect â€Å"damage control† allowing the illness or disorder to intensify possibly leading to a state wherein medical professionals will not be able to provide and recommend treatment appropriately.

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Introduction Separation of drug addicts from these substances during treatment has several implications on the general wellbeing of the same. It is because addicts dependence on the drugs is very high and in most instances, they can hardly function without the influence of drugs. However, in order to function executively, independence from drugs and alcohol is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and many other factors that undermine the total recovery of the addicts. Studies conducted show that the process of mourning is fundamental because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that inhibit recovery. Indeed, mourning according to psychoanalysts enables the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relationships with human beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality plays a very fundamental role. This concept means different things to different people but essentially, it has been contended that the influence of the Supreme Being enhances change in character. At this point in time, it is worth noting that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the construction and reconstruction of personal narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review provides an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance abuse and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance effective coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic aspects of the theoretical construct of the subject under review, psychodynamic perspectives on addiction, psychodynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality can be employed in the construction of narratives, the application of the multiple code theory on mourning and the impact of rage and shame on the mourning process and ultimate recovery of the addicts. General theory of affect Object relations theory Over time, the objects relations theory has gained popularity because of the fact that its application plays a fundamental role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active course of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different real others that are found in that particular environment (Masterson, 1998). The term object in this regard refers to the physical others as well as the others that are imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic environment and influence growth in different ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the various objects are often initiated during the childhood interactions that an infant has with a care giver, the mother or any other individual that the infant shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this regard show that these early interactions can be modified and improved through time due to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, despite the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent effect on a persons psychological wellbeing. The infant usually interacts with and understands different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that provides milk and satisfies the infant when it is hungry is perceived as the good breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry assumes a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is often subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant starts to internalize certain objects and develops a sense of imagination. As such it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in the mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects may be a direct representation of the real external ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environmen t results into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can then be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts are part of the mother. Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The various interactions with the parents lead to the development of a special bond which further strengthens the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future emotional experiences of the child are highly influenced by the emotional relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine later relationships with others. With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that effective parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can maintain a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, defective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture socially acceptable individuals, it is important that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy. Fairbairn (1952) also argues that in cases where the parents are missing, the infants mind internalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the mother of the infant is stressed but renounces this state, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationship with the mother during this period. As a result, the infant becomes stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not effectively relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition. In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a distinct status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an important basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an independent and complex individual who lives an independent life. This then helps the child to understand and acknowledge the contributions of the mother in his or her life. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good enough mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medica l practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate. The drive theory This theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain structural expectations. Studies show that failure to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basically destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the drive is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive often increases with time (Grostein, 1981). With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly important that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best approaches that they can utilize for effective recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interventions can be undertaken to avoid adverse effects. The Inter-subjective theory of affect This theory presumes than in order to address problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a given condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our various ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are fundamental for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of language in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickly. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and i s instrumental in initiating social relationships. In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to forego the isolation that characterizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become vulnerable to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulnerability then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes unbearable. It should be acknowledged that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual. To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when faced with any emotional and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the severity of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real social relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties. The affect theory Theorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an organization of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally through various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of pain or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through smiling. The nine affects as identified by this theory include joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991). With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are always prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be properly utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goal and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they encourage the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions accordingly (Tomkins, 1991). In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results within the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not only does this help the patients to save time and resources that are used in therapy, but it also improves their productivity. Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be disputed that Christianity plays an important role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory plays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its usability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery. Psychodynamic perspective on addiction This perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its contention is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key influences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in future; they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not made in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into ment al illness at later stages of the childs life. According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the sexual and force related drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is determined by the extent of their understanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ul timate reflection of an abnormality in self organization. The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechanisms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of maladaptive behavior, which in most instances is addictive. Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this field using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author include the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he classified the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008). In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is presently used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts experienced pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to be a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction. Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that gambling is indeed an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of socialization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection. Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalytic who made significant contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by intense inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs occurs because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful childhood feelings. Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result, he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reserved in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self recognition to his entire self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated. Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in dangerous activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive activities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the hidden psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery; the patient is the one to make the ult imate choice regarding the recovery from addiction. Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substance abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understand the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are fully addressed. Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He supported this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is supported by various studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analytic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts. Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse. Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration. The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in order to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact that the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived. In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by stressful conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effective manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders. Psychodynamic perspectives of mourning Mourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a loss of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain period of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the lost object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the loss and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999). The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute significantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in detail by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first phase according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized by painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others. After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the lost object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object. The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization. Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process are often organized during this stage. According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement. This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is important because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). However, this contention has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons. However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to grief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from parents. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same. Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often directed towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife who Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Introduction Separation of drug addicts from these substances during treatment has several implications on the general wellbeing of the same. It is because addicts dependence on the drugs is very high and in most instances, they can hardly function without the influence of drugs. However, in order to function executively, independence from drugs and alcohol is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and many other factors that undermine the total recovery of the addicts. Studies conducted show that the process of mourning is fundamental because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that inhibit recovery. Indeed, mourning according to psychoanalysts enables the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relationships with human beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality plays a very fundamental role. This concept means different things to different people but essentially, it has been contended that the influence of the Supreme Being enhances change in character. At this point in time, it is worth noting that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the construction and reconstruction of personal narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review provides an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance abuse and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance effective coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic aspects of the theoretical construct of the subject under review, psychodynamic perspectives on addiction, psychodynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality can be employed in the construction of narratives, the application of the multiple code theory on mourning and the impact of rage and shame on the mourning process and ultimate recovery of the addicts. General theory of affect Object relations theory Over time, the objects relations theory has gained popularity because of the fact that its application plays a fundamental role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active course of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different real others that are found in that particular environment (Masterson, 1998). The term object in this regard refers to the physical others as well as the others that are imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic environment and influence growth in different ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the various objects are often initiated during the childhood interactions that an infant has with a care giver, the mother or any other individual that the infant shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this regard show that these early interactions can be modified and improved through time due to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, despite the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent effect on a persons psychological wellbeing. The infant usually interacts with and understands different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that provides milk and satisfies the infant when it is hungry is perceived as the good breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry assumes a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is often subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant starts to internalize certain objects and develops a sense of imagination. As such it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in the mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects may be a direct representation of the real external ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environmen t results into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can then be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts are part of the mother. Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The various interactions with the parents lead to the development of a special bond which further strengthens the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future emotional experiences of the child are highly influenced by the emotional relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine later relationships with others. With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that effective parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can maintain a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, defective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture socially acceptable individuals, it is important that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy. Fairbairn (1952) also argues that in cases where the parents are missing, the infants mind internalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the mother of the infant is stressed but renounces this state, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationship with the mother during this period. As a result, the infant becomes stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not effectively relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition. In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a distinct status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an important basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an independent and complex individual who lives an independent life. This then helps the child to understand and acknowledge the contributions of the mother in his or her life. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good enough mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medica l practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate. The drive theory This theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain structural expectations. Studies show that failure to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basically destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the drive is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive often increases with time (Grostein, 1981). With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly important that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best approaches that they can utilize for effective recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interventions can be undertaken to avoid adverse effects. The Inter-subjective theory of affect This theory presumes than in order to address problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a given condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our various ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are fundamental for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of language in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickly. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and i s instrumental in initiating social relationships. In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to forego the isolation that characterizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become vulnerable to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulnerability then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes unbearable. It should be acknowledged that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual. To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when faced with any emotional and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the severity of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real social relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties. The affect theory Theorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an organization of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally through various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of pain or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through smiling. The nine affects as identified by this theory include joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991). With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are always prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be properly utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goal and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they encourage the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions accordingly (Tomkins, 1991). In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results within the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not only does this help the patients to save time and resources that are used in therapy, but it also improves their productivity. Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be disputed that Christianity plays an important role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory plays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its usability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery. Psychodynamic perspective on addiction This perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its contention is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key influences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in future; they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not made in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into ment al illness at later stages of the childs life. According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the sexual and force related drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is determined by the extent of their understanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ul timate reflection of an abnormality in self organization. The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechanisms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of maladaptive behavior, which in most instances is addictive. Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this field using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author include the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he classified the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008). In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is presently used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts experienced pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to be a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction. Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that gambling is indeed an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of socialization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection. Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalytic who made significant contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by intense inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs occurs because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful childhood feelings. Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result, he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reserved in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self recognition to his entire self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated. Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in dangerous activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive activities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the hidden psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery; the patient is the one to make the ult imate choice regarding the recovery from addiction. Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substance abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understand the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are fully addressed. Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He supported this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is supported by various studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analytic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts. Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse. Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration. The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in order to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact that the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived. In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by stressful conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effective manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders. Psychodynamic perspectives of mourning Mourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a loss of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain period of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the lost object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the loss and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999). The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute significantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in detail by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first phase according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized by painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others. After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the lost object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object. The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization. Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process are often organized during this stage. According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement. This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is important because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). However, this contention has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons. However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to grief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from parents. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same. Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often directed towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife who

Management Internal/External Factors Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Internal/External Factors of Management – Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today’s world management must consider a wide variety of factors in order to establish an effective management plan. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. is the world’s largest company and number one retailer, with this success a company this large needs to not only to look internally for solutions to their management objectives, they must also look outside of their business for additional resources. With the increase of technology and the easy access to virtually any information, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. must be prepared to react to the multitude of demands made by consumers and suppliers. The rapid change of the retail industry from brick and mortar stores to Internet purchases Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has been able to stay attractive to the buying public. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has accomplished this through a highly sophisticated inventory tracking system that enables the stores, including the Internet, to have in stock exactly what the consumers are looking for. Ac cording to Hoover’s Online Wal-Mart Stores, Inc has expanded to about 4,700 stores including about 1,500 discount stores, 1,650 combination discount and grocery stores (Wal-Mart Supercenters in the US and ASDA in the UK) and 532 membership-only warehouse stores (Sam’s Club) (2003). With the introduction of a foreign market their management plan must encompass the rules and regulations of doing business in a foreign country. With the invention of their tracking and identification system, called Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has exerted control over their entire inventory and enables the workers to identify and locate merchandise more readily for the customers. E-Commerce has increased the ease of purchasing for consumers; Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has a web site that allows for the ease and convenience of purchasing almost every item in the store over the Internet. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has been very innovative in meeting the needs of their cl ientele, with the Supercenters, it is basically one stop shopping for all of your household and grocery needs, without the hassles of stopping at two stores when you run your errands.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a highly respected private employer, Wal-Mart is committed to uphold diversity. Wal-Mart is fully committed to respect their employees... ...er innovation that Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., has adopted is its frame delay data network. This allows for Wal-Mart stores to catalog and examine every transaction that is made so that they will be able to keep their finger on the pulse of the customers’ buying patterns. With this they can tract how much of a certain item customers buy and then relay that information on to the supplier. For example, if customers are buying four of the same item, then Wal-Mart can advise the supplier of this information and then the supplier can package the item in groups of four. Through innovation Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., has redefined the basic dimension of the retail Industry. Works Cited About Wal-Mart. â€Å"Wal-Mart International.† 8 November 2003. http://www.walmartstores.com/wmstore/wmstore/Mainabout.jsp?BV_SessionID=@@@ Aisner, James E. â€Å"Rapid Response: Inside the Retailing Revolution.† Harvard Business School Working Knowledge on the Web. Winter 1999. http://www.e-proximity.com/cream/HBS%20retail.htm Biesada, A. (2003) Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Hoover’s Online. Retrieved November 8, 2003 from: http://www.hoovers.com/free/co/factsheet.xhtml Dash30. Wal-Mart Takes on The Web. 8 Oct. 2003 . Management Internal/External Factors Essay -- essays research papers fc The Internal/External Factors of Management – Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today’s world management must consider a wide variety of factors in order to establish an effective management plan. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. is the world’s largest company and number one retailer, with this success a company this large needs to not only to look internally for solutions to their management objectives, they must also look outside of their business for additional resources. With the increase of technology and the easy access to virtually any information, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. must be prepared to react to the multitude of demands made by consumers and suppliers. The rapid change of the retail industry from brick and mortar stores to Internet purchases Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has been able to stay attractive to the buying public. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has accomplished this through a highly sophisticated inventory tracking system that enables the stores, including the Internet, to have in stock exactly what the consumers are looking for. Ac cording to Hoover’s Online Wal-Mart Stores, Inc has expanded to about 4,700 stores including about 1,500 discount stores, 1,650 combination discount and grocery stores (Wal-Mart Supercenters in the US and ASDA in the UK) and 532 membership-only warehouse stores (Sam’s Club) (2003). With the introduction of a foreign market their management plan must encompass the rules and regulations of doing business in a foreign country. With the invention of their tracking and identification system, called Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has exerted control over their entire inventory and enables the workers to identify and locate merchandise more readily for the customers. E-Commerce has increased the ease of purchasing for consumers; Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has a web site that allows for the ease and convenience of purchasing almost every item in the store over the Internet. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has been very innovative in meeting the needs of their cl ientele, with the Supercenters, it is basically one stop shopping for all of your household and grocery needs, without the hassles of stopping at two stores when you run your errands.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a highly respected private employer, Wal-Mart is committed to uphold diversity. Wal-Mart is fully committed to respect their employees... ...er innovation that Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., has adopted is its frame delay data network. This allows for Wal-Mart stores to catalog and examine every transaction that is made so that they will be able to keep their finger on the pulse of the customers’ buying patterns. With this they can tract how much of a certain item customers buy and then relay that information on to the supplier. For example, if customers are buying four of the same item, then Wal-Mart can advise the supplier of this information and then the supplier can package the item in groups of four. Through innovation Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., has redefined the basic dimension of the retail Industry. Works Cited About Wal-Mart. â€Å"Wal-Mart International.† 8 November 2003. http://www.walmartstores.com/wmstore/wmstore/Mainabout.jsp?BV_SessionID=@@@ Aisner, James E. â€Å"Rapid Response: Inside the Retailing Revolution.† Harvard Business School Working Knowledge on the Web. Winter 1999. http://www.e-proximity.com/cream/HBS%20retail.htm Biesada, A. (2003) Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Hoover’s Online. Retrieved November 8, 2003 from: http://www.hoovers.com/free/co/factsheet.xhtml Dash30. Wal-Mart Takes on The Web. 8 Oct. 2003 . Management Internal/External Factors Essay -- essays research papers fc The Internal/External Factors of Management – Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today’s world management must consider a wide variety of factors in order to establish an effective management plan. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. is the world’s largest company and number one retailer, with this success a company this large needs to not only to look internally for solutions to their management objectives, they must also look outside of their business for additional resources. With the increase of technology and the easy access to virtually any information, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. must be prepared to react to the multitude of demands made by consumers and suppliers. The rapid change of the retail industry from brick and mortar stores to Internet purchases Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has been able to stay attractive to the buying public. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has accomplished this through a highly sophisticated inventory tracking system that enables the stores, including the Internet, to have in stock exactly what the consumers are looking for. Ac cording to Hoover’s Online Wal-Mart Stores, Inc has expanded to about 4,700 stores including about 1,500 discount stores, 1,650 combination discount and grocery stores (Wal-Mart Supercenters in the US and ASDA in the UK) and 532 membership-only warehouse stores (Sam’s Club) (2003). With the introduction of a foreign market their management plan must encompass the rules and regulations of doing business in a foreign country. With the invention of their tracking and identification system, called Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has exerted control over their entire inventory and enables the workers to identify and locate merchandise more readily for the customers. E-Commerce has increased the ease of purchasing for consumers; Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has a web site that allows for the ease and convenience of purchasing almost every item in the store over the Internet. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has been very innovative in meeting the needs of their cl ientele, with the Supercenters, it is basically one stop shopping for all of your household and grocery needs, without the hassles of stopping at two stores when you run your errands.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a highly respected private employer, Wal-Mart is committed to uphold diversity. Wal-Mart is fully committed to respect their employees... ...er innovation that Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., has adopted is its frame delay data network. This allows for Wal-Mart stores to catalog and examine every transaction that is made so that they will be able to keep their finger on the pulse of the customers’ buying patterns. With this they can tract how much of a certain item customers buy and then relay that information on to the supplier. For example, if customers are buying four of the same item, then Wal-Mart can advise the supplier of this information and then the supplier can package the item in groups of four. Through innovation Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., has redefined the basic dimension of the retail Industry. Works Cited About Wal-Mart. â€Å"Wal-Mart International.† 8 November 2003. http://www.walmartstores.com/wmstore/wmstore/Mainabout.jsp?BV_SessionID=@@@ Aisner, James E. â€Å"Rapid Response: Inside the Retailing Revolution.† Harvard Business School Working Knowledge on the Web. Winter 1999. http://www.e-proximity.com/cream/HBS%20retail.htm Biesada, A. (2003) Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Hoover’s Online. Retrieved November 8, 2003 from: http://www.hoovers.com/free/co/factsheet.xhtml Dash30. Wal-Mart Takes on The Web. 8 Oct. 2003 .

Comparing the Male Characters of Porphyria’s Lover and My Last Duchess

Comparing the Male Characters of Porphyria’s Lover and My Last Duchess The creation of a plausible character within literature is one of the most difficult challenges to a writer, and development to a level at which the reader identifies with them can take a long time. However, through the masterful use of poetic devices and language Browning is able to create two living and breathing characters in sixty or less lines. When one examines these works one has to that they are quite the achievements for they not only display the persona’s of two distinct men but also when compared show large differences while dealing with essentially the same subject. A brief examination of the structural aspects of â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover† is needed before further analysis is done. One can break the poem up into twelve stanzas with an ababb stanzaic rhyme structure, though it is most often printed as a block poem. This would make it an alternately rhymed quatrain with a fifth line attached to create a couplet ending. The majority of the lines contain four iambic feet, though a few are nonasyllabic. Five of the twelve stanzas spill into the next stanza, thus detracting from their free-standing integrity. These stanzas are not syntactically self-containing and therefore the end-couplet value is undercut. If we examine the end of the eighth stanza we see that there is enjambment into the ninth stanza. In one long yellow string I wound, Three times her little throat around, And strangled her. (Browning, Porphyria’s Lover†, Lines 39-41) This does detract from the couplet though it emphasizes the tone, making the understated nature even more sociopathic. This is one example of how this simple tool in itself masterfully accentuates the overall tone of u... ...em we can learn the nature of love should allow people to conquer class distinction and that marriage should avoid sexist male tendencies. Inadequacy is a feeling that pervades both poems, and is evident through the voices of their protagonists. One can see its horrifying effect immediately. Men need to learn to deal with their possessive and aggressive natures in a way that creates a love that is beneficial to both partners not to just one. Browning, in these works, is painting the side the Romantics before him neglected to. Works Cited Browning, Robert, Robert Browning: Selected Poetry, (London: Penguin Books, 1989), pp. 17-8 and 25-6 Burrows, Leonard, Browning the Poet, (Perth: University of Western Australia Press, 1969), pp. 51-61 and 115-121 DeVane, William Clyde, A Browning Handbook, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. 1955), pp. 108-9

The New Generation: Internet and the Side Effects

The New Generation: Internet and the Side Effects Submitted to: Professor Tonio Sadik Submitted by: John Yoo (4578772) SOC 3116 C November 16th 2011 The article, â€Å"A Fantasy World Is Creating Problems in South Korea† published by Choe Sang-Hun from The New York Times discuss the growing issue of internet gaming addiction among adults in South Korea (Choe, 2010). With the emergence of the internet, more and more people around the world communicate with one another on a day-to-day basis through this modern communication technology.As the digital generation in the 21st Century continues to stay online, there is a need to critically examine the issue of whether or not there is a correlation between the amount of time people spend online (including surfing the web, social networking, instant messaging, online gaming, etc. ) and its effects on their social behaviour. This essay will focus on how people interact online based on certain theories that may explain the increase of in ternet addiction and the potential consequences these issues may bring to our next generation.In comparison to the previous generations who have grown up mostly with books and outdoor activities, the generation Z or the â€Å"internet† generation today are integrating the digital culture into their early lives. For these generations, the Internet, playing videogames, downloading music onto an iPod, or multitasking with a cell phone is no more complicated than setting the toaster oven to bake or turning on the TV.However, it is important to note that internet was first developed for the military and was not used commercially until 1990’s when its information-sharing and communicative functions attracted the interest of corporations and then of the general public (Gackenbach, 2007, p. 18). Nowadays, it is a mandatory condition for employees to use internet at work, to use e-mail and share files. Furthermore, due to the rapid development of the internet and other innovati ve tools such as smart phones being able to be connected anywhere all times, it is unimaginable how much one can do in a small amount of time.Thus, if people today do not participate in online activities, they usually tend to feel excluded or powerless or, at the very least, out of date (Gackenbach, 2007, p. 19). As much as the internet being the new way to communicate and share information efficiently, Karl Marx pointed out that â€Å"certain new technologies have incredible power to shape human behaviour and social structures† (Wallace, 1999, p. 13). Whether his theory is the complete truth or not, through various research and past investigations, one may hypothesize that excessive usage of internet for a long period of time may actually shape human behaviour.On the contrary to the hypothesis, several studies have examined the association between time on the Internet and social and psychological factors, and these studies seem less likely to find negative associations. Morg an and Cotton’s (2003) study of college freshmen found that increased time spent shopping, playing games and doing research was associated with higher levels of depression, but sending e-mail and visiting chat rooms was associated with lower levels (Shields & Kane, 2011).This may be true as many college students tend to communicate through online chat rooms to either family or friends, or send e-mail to loved ones as a stress-relief from studies or work. Thus, just spending time on the internet may be too broad of a term, and need to be more specified as to what type of internet usage. From the journal â€Å"Social and Psychological Correlates of Internet Use among College Students†, Gordon et al. (2007) also argues that the reasons why individuals use the Internet must be taken into account in order to understand associations (Shields & Kane, 2011).Our personality is the source of our emotions, cognition, and behaviour (Amichai-Hamburger, 2005). Most of the time in th e real world, only the surface of our personality may become visible to others while the rest of it remains unrevealed, and on the contrast to the real world, there exists a more protective environment over the internet that sometimes encourages people to express themselves more freely than they would in a real world interaction (Amichai-Hamburger, 2005).This type of interaction may be found within internet discussion forums where people with anonymous or virtual IDs being able to discuss about certain matters on a topic/idea or on issues from around the world. This is also quite visible within online chat rooms where people get to communicate with others from all over the world without publicly sharing their identification from the start. The idea of being unidentified may give users the comfort to reveal more of who they really are or give the option to be someone completely different.Disinhibition is defined as the inability to control impulsive behaviours, thoughts, or feelings, and manifests online as people communicating in ways that they would not ordinarily do offline and can be positive or negative (Gackenbach, 2007, p. 58). The concept of disinhibition can be quite surprising for example, Nidederhoffer and Pennebaker (2002) were amazed when, in post-experimental interviews, students who had just engaged online in â€Å"overt invitations for sex, explicit sexual language, or discussion of graphic sexual escapades† (p. 4) were demure and shy (Gackenbach, 2007, p. 59). This idea of disinhibition may be translated into people are still being themselves online but it is being part of themselves that they generally keep fairly hidden. Suler explains six general reasons why people extend their emotional expression of the self while online: Dissociative Anonymity, Invisibility, Asynchronicity, Solipsistic Introjection, Dissociative Imagination, and Minimization of Status and Authority (Gackenbach, 2007, p. 59). 1.Dissociative Anonymity: Although not a formal pathology, the sense of self while online becomes compartmentalized into an â€Å"online self† which is perceived as alone and anonymous, and an offline self that is different. Because the Internet feels so virtual and boundary-less, it is tempting to perceive â€Å"the other† as not real; 2. Invisibility: No need to worry about how you look when chatting with someone online; 3. Asynchronicity: For many online communications, one can respond at one’s leisure and the pressure of an immediate response is gone; 4.Solipsistic Introjection: The online friend becomes incorporated into one’s intrapsychic world. Some of these interactions are real and immediate, while others are somewhat less so, such as an imagined comeback to your boss. The online friend can take on a special status in our imagined internal dialogues, which can result in a felt sense of special closeness existing outside the boundaries of time and space; 5. Dissociative Imagination: Som e people keep careful boundaries between their online selves and their real-world selves.So, for instance, in online role-playing games such as Everquest, when the computer is turned off, the online self as a wizard is gone. This idea of separate realm provides the online self the freedom to do things which the offline self would not do, such as flirt outrageously or act aggressively; 6. Minimization of Status and Authority: An example may be although you know that your boss has a higher level of status from you at work, when responding to his e-mails, that gap minimizes.Thus, it sometimes becomes easy to make a nasty or sarcastic comment by e-mail that would never have been spoken during face-to-face situation; (Gackenbach, 2007, p. 60) With these facets in mind, which can be revealed through interactions on the Internet, one may argue that unexpressed behaviours can be generalized from virtual world into the real world. Most of us enter cyberspace, however, lot of us just never gi ve much thought to the online persona – how we come across to the people with whom we interact online (Wallace, 1999).People in general do not give much thought into what the person on the other side of the screen actually think of them. This may be because many times those people are either their friends or family (people who are close in the real world) or they are someone completely unknown who may reside on the other side of the world in the real world that one may just don’t care about what they think of them.However, there is an increase in how online persona is playing a larger role when it comes to first impressions as in this generation people rely on e-mails, Web sites, and discussion forums more for the first contact, and the phone call, letter, or face-to-face meetings less (Wallace, 1999). This increasing trend of communication through e-mail and online messaging tools are even thoroughly visible in the public workplaces, such as Government of Canada (GoC) . Everyday, public servants send and receive e-mails using the common GoC e-mail messaging tool, â€Å"Microsoft Outlook† whether it is through lackberry or workstation (PC). As many of these people work in collaboration with others across the country or even around the world, there is a strong need to be careful on how their e-mail is written so that there are low chances of possible miscommunication with the other person. There is an issue that is currently visible due to massive amounts of e-mail and sharing of information over internet. The Library and Archives Canada (LAC) states that â€Å"globally, we send 35  billion emails per day; in the Government of Canada (GoC) we send 18  million per day. 0%  of  GoC  business is now conducted by email; 99. 9%  of government records are digital†() The issue is that some of the departments in GoC are now faced with these massive amounts of e-mails (both transitory which are personal e-mails and are useless to t he organization; and of business value) and â€Å"it is estimated that 85% of corporate data resides informally in those unstructured formats outside of corporate custody and control, in the PC desktops under the custody and control of individuals or groups†().Being able to communicate more efficiently is an important factor, however, the unlimited communications of cyberspace permitted by the web and networks nowadays and this exponential growth of information† means that one just cannot capture and preserve all of it.There are many personality theories relevant to the interaction on the internet, such as the need for closure, the need for cognition, risk taking, sensation seeking, attachment, and locus of control, one theory that is considered by many to have the most relevance to the social aspects of the Internet Interaction is the extroversion and neuroticism personality theory (Amichai-Hamburger, 2005, p. 28). This theory is one of the developments of Carl Jungâ⠂¬â„¢s extroversion-introversion personality typology and is used to explain the possible relationship between extroversion, neuroticism and loneliness (Amichai-Hamburger, 2005, p. 9). According to this model, some people tend to hold a negative view of themselves and the world and as a result, perceive themselves as depressed, worthless, and lonely, regardless of their actual social network. From series of studies, it is found that only the correlation between extroversion and loneliness, and not that between neuroticism and loneliness, is mediated by the size of the individual’s social network. Thus, people who are high in neuroticism seem o be lonely not because of their difficulty in forming and maintaining relationships, but rather as a result of their general negative bias (Amichai-Hamburger, 2005, p. 30). Bibliography Academic Sources: Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2005). The Social Net: Human Behaviour in Cyberspace. Oxford University Press. Chen, J. V. , Ross, W. H. , & Yan g, H. -H. (2011). Personality and Motivational Factors Predicting Internet Abuse at Work. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace.Choe, S. -H. (2010, May 26). A Fantasy World Is Creating Problems in South Korea. The New York Times. Gackenbach, J. (2007). Psychology and the Internet: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Transpersonal Implications. Elsevier. Shields, N. , & Kane, J. (2011). Social and Psychological Correlates of Internet Use among College Students. CyberPsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. Wallace, P. (1999). The Psychology of The Internet. Cambridge University Press.